【摘要】 承担第三方义务的私人主体拥有技术或者经营、管理上的优势,可以更好地发现与阻止违法行为,同时也更符合成本收益分析的要求。法律控制越是复杂,立法者越是需要使用侵权法、第三方义务制度与政府规制来共同实现法律实施与遵从目标、实现最佳威慑效果。能否产生有效的威慑是判断第三方义务是否适当的关键,除非第三方义务可以有效阻止违法行为,否则立法者不应过多地赋予私人主体承担第三方义务。政府如何更好地监督第三方义务主体,如何保护相对人的言论自由、平等权、职业自由等基本权利,均是构建第三方义务制度需要认真考量的内容。 | |||
一、引言
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{1}See Reinier H. Kraakman, Corporate Liability Strategies and the Costs of Legal Controls,93 Yale L. J.857,865-67(1984)(指出第三方义务是解决直接责任失灵的重要手段);Steven Shavell, Liability for Harm Versus Regulation of Safety,13 J. Legal Stud.357(1984)(指出在特定的环境下,规制优于直接责任);Ke Steven Wan, Gatekeeper Liability Versus Regulation of Wrongdoers,34 Ohio N. U. L. Rev.483(2008)(指出将责任扩展到相关的私人主体可以降低法律实施的社会成本). {2}参见《广州市控制吸烟条例》第9条、第25条。 {3}参见《国务院关于进一步加强食品安全工作的决定》,国发〔2004〕23号;《国务院关于加强食品等产品安全监督管理的特别规定》,国务院令第503号。 {4}参见《国务院关于加强食品安全工作的决定》,国发〔2012〕20号。 {5}See Jeffrey Manns, Private Monitoring of Gatekeepers: The Case of Immigration Enforcement,2006 U.111. L. Rev.887(2006). {6}参见《金融机构大额交易和可疑交易报告管理办法》第13条。 {7}参见《云南省流动人口计划生育管理规定》第11条。 {8}参见《东莞市流动人员管理规定》第6条。 {9}参见《上海市公共场所控制吸烟条例》第12条、第20条。 {10}See Janet A. Gilboy, Compelled Third-Party Participation in the Regulatory Process: Legal Duties, Culture, and Noncompliance,20 Law & Pol'y 135(1998); Reinier H. Kraakman, Gatekeepers: The Anatomy of Third-Party Enforcement Strategy,2 J. L. Econ.& Org.53(1986); Douglas Lichtman & William Landes, Indirect Liability in Copyright: An Economic Perspective,16 Harv. J. Law & Tech.395,396-99(2003).还有称为第三方警察(third-party policing)、第三方实施(third- party enforcement)机制等。See Sharyn L. Roach Anleu, et al.,Third-Party Policing and Insurance: The Case of Market-Based Crime Prevention, 22 Law & Pol'y 67,67(2000). {11}See Reiner H. Kraakman, Corporate Liability Strategies and the Costs of Legal Controls, 93 Yale L. J. 857(1984). {12}See Peter N. Grabosky, Using Non-Governmental Resources to Foster Regulatory Compliance,8 Governance: An International Journal of Policy and Administration 527(1995). {13}See Janet A. Gilboy, Implications of “Third-Party” Involvement in Enforcement: The INS, Illegal Travelers, and International Airlines,31 Law & Society Review 505-29(1997) {14}See Janet A. Gilboy, Compelled Third-Party Participation in the Regulatory Process; Legal Duties, Culture, and Noncompliance,20 Law & Pol'y 135,136(1998). {15}See Colin Scott, Private Regulation of the Public Sector: A Neglected Facet of Contemporary Governance, 29 Journal of L. & Soc.56,57-58(2002). {16}See Rob Baggott, Regulatory Reform in Britain: The Changing Face of Self-Regulation, 67 Pub. Admin. 435(1989). {17}参见最高人民法院:《关于审理因垄断行为引发的民事纠纷案件应用法律若干问题的规定》,法释〔2012〕第5号。 {18}See Pamela H. Bucy, “Carrots and Sticks”: Post-Enron Regulatory Initiatives,8 Buff. Crim. L. Rev.277,318-22(2004); Richard E. Moberly, Sarbanes-Oxley's Structural Model to Encourage Corporate Whistleblowers,2006 BYU L. Rev.1107,1133-38; Geoffrey Christopher Rapp, Beyond Protection: Invigorating Incentives for Sarbanes-Oxley Corporate and Securities Fraud Whistleblowers,87 B. U. L. Rev.91,111-14(2007). {19}See Stephen M. Kohn et al.,Whistleblower Law: A Guide to Legal Protections fur Corporate Employees,2004; Richard E. Moberly, Sarbanes-Oxley's Structural Model to Encourage Corporate Whistleblowers,2006 BYU L. Rev.1107,1126-31. {20}参见张民安:《侵权法上的替代责任》,北京大学出版社2010年版,“序”第3页。 {21}例如《道路交通事故处理办法》第31条规定中的但书条款创设了在交通事故中,被使用人侵权时,由使用人承担侵权责任的法人转承责任或雇佣人转承责任的法律制度及《道路交通安全法实施条例》第20条规定的教练员替代责任。国务院1987年6月29发布的《医疗事故处理办法》和2002年9月1日起施行的行政法规《医疗事故处理条例》确立了医疗机构在医疗事故中的替代责任法律制度。 {22}See Paul Burrows, Combining Regulation and Legal Liability for the Control of External Costs,19 Int'l Rev. L.& Econ.227(1999); Richard Craswell & John E. Calfee, Deterrence and Uncertain Legal Standards,2 J. L. Econ.& Org.279(1986); Charles D. Kolstad et al.,Ex Post Liability for Harm vs. Ex Ante Safety Regulation: Substitutes or Complements?,80 Arn. Econ. Rev.888-89(1990); Patrick W. Schmitz, On the Joint Use of Liability and Safety Regulation,20 Int'1 Rev. L.& Econ.371,371-72(2000); Steven Shavell, A Model of the Optimal Use of Liability and Safety Regulation,15 Rand J. Econ.271,271-80(1984); Donald Wittman, Prior Regulation Versus Post Liability: The Choice Between Input and Output Monitoring,6 J. Legal Stud,193(1977). {23}See Eugene Bardach & Robert A. Kagan, Going by the Book: The Problem of Regulatory Unreasonableness, Transaction Publishers, 2002; Keith Hawkins & John M. Thomas, eds.,Enforcing Regulation, Kluwe - Nijhoff Publishing,1984,p.381. {24}参见《北京市食品安全违法案件线索举报奖励办法》第5条、第6条、第9条;《南京市食品安全举报奖励办法》第9、10.12条;《深圳市食品安全举报奖励办法》第五章;《开封市食品安全有奖举报制度(试行)》第5条、第6条、第7条。 {25}参见《上海市公共场所控制吸烟条例》第20条。 {26}参见《互联网信息服务管理办法》第23条。 {27}参见《反洗钱法》第32条。 {28}参见《云南省流动人口计划生育管理规定》第20条。 {29}参见《东莞市流动人员管理规定》第32、33条。 {30}参见[德]乌茨·施利斯基:《经济公法》,喻文光译,法律出版社2006年版,第149页。 {31}行政法或规制实施与规制遵从是一个问题的两个方面,前者是指行政执法的问题,而后者是指企业对待行政机关制定的规制的执行问题,只有当企业遵从规制执法措施时,执法才是有效的。参见肖兴志、赵文霞:《规制遵从行为研究评述》,载《经济学动态》2011年第5期。 {32}See James Salzman et al.,Regulatory Traffic Jams,2 Wyo. L. Rev.253,255(2002). {33}See Robert A. Kagan & John T. Scholz, The “Criminology of the Corporation” and Regulatory Enforcement Strategies ,in Keith Hawkins & John M. Thomas eds.,Enforcing Regulation,1984,pp.67,69-74; David B. Spence, The Shadow of the Rational Polluter: Rethinking the Role of Rational Actor Models in Environmental Law,89 Cal. L. Rev.917,919-23(2001). {34}See Timothy F. Malloy, Regulation, Compliance and the Firm,76 Temp. L. Rev.451,453-54&nn.9-11(2003). {35}See Clifford Hechtschalfen, Deterrence vs. Cooperation and the Evolving Theory of Environmental Enforcement,71 S. Cal. L. Rev.1181,1186-89(1998). {36}See Richard A. Posner, Economic Analysis of Law,1986,201-27; Gary S. Becker, Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach,76 J. Pol. Econ.169(1968); George J. Stigler, The Optimum Enforcement of Laws,78 J. Pol. Econ.526(1970). {37}See Eugene Bardach & Robert A. Kagan, Going by the Book: The Problem of Regulatory Unreasonableness, 1982, pp.64-66. {38}See Christine Parker, The Open Corporation: Effective Self-Regulation and Democracy, Cambridge University Press,2002. {39}See Bronwen Morgan & Karen Yeung, An Introduction to Law and Regulation; Text and Materials, Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp.53-76. {40}See Ian Ayers & John Braithwaite,Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate, Oxford University Press, 1992, pp.57-58. {41}See Reinier H. Kraakman, Corporate Liability Strategies and the Costs of Legal Controls, 93 Yale L. J.857,890(1984). {42}有关私人执法可以弥补公共执法的益处及不足可以参见Pamela H. Bucy, Private Justice,76 S. Cal. L. Rev.1,54-68(2002);Matthew C. Stephenson, Public Regulation of Private Enforcement: The Case for Expanding the Role of Administrative Agencies,91 Va. L. Rev.93,121-44(2005); Barton H. Thompson, Jr.,The Continuing Innovation of Citizen Enforcement, U.111. L. Rev.185,186-88(2000). {43}See Sharyn L. Roach Anleu, et al.,Third - Party Policing and Insurance; The Case of Market - Based Crime Prevention,22 Law & Pol'y 67,70 (2000). {44}参见《互联网信息服务管理办法》第23条;《反洗钱法》第32条。 {45}See Kenneth A. Bamberger, Regulation as Delegation; Private Firms, Decisionmaking, and Accountability in the Administrative State,56 Duke L. J.377,380(2006). {46}See Jeffrey Manns, Private Monitoring of Gatekeepers: The Case of Immigration Enforcement, U.111. L. Rev.887,899(2006). {47}See John C. Coffee, Jr.,Gatekeeper Failure and Reform: The Challenge of Fashioning Relevant Reforms, 84 B. U. L. Rev.301,308-09(2004); Assaf Hamdani, Gatekeeper Liability,77 S. Cal. L. Rev.53(2003). {48}See John C. Coffee, Jr.,The Acquiescent Gatekeeper: Reputational Intermediaries, Auditor Independence and Governance of Accounting 11-14,available at http://papers.ssm.com/sol3/papers.cfm? abstract_id=270944, last visited June 10,2012. {49}See Assaf Hamdani, Gatekeeper Liability,77 S. Cal. L. Rev.53,60-62(2003) {50}See John Braithwaite, Regulatory Capitalism: How It Works, Ideas for Making It Work Better, Edward Elgar,2008. {51}See Lesley K. McAllister, Regulation by Third-Party Verification,53 B. C. L. Rev.1(2012). {52}有关规制与侵权责任之间的关系,参见解亘:《论管制规范在侵权行为法上的意义》,载《中国法学》2009年第2期;宋华琳:《论政府规制与侵权法的交错——以药品规制为例证》,载《比较法研究》2008年第2期。 {53}See Richard J. Pierce, Jr.,Encouraging Safety: The Limits of Tort Law and Government Regulation, 33 Vand. L. Rev.1281(1980); Peter Cane, Tort Law as Regulation,31 Com. L. World Rev.305(2002); Richard B. Stewart, Crisis in Tort Law? The Institutional Perspective,54 U. Chi. L. Rev.184(1987); N. William Hines, Nor Any Drop to Drink. Public Regulation of Water Quality,52 Iowa L. Rev.186(1966). {54}参见[美]斯帝文·萨维尔:《事故法的经济分析》,翟继光译,北京大学出版社2005年版,第304-330页。 {55}See Steven Shavell, A Model of the Optimal Use of Liability and Safety Regulation,15 Rand J. Econ.271(1984). {56}See Ke Steven Wan, Gatekeeper Liability Versus Regulation of Wrongdoers,34 Ohio N. U. L. Rev.483,483 (2008). {57}See Steven L. Schwarcz, Ex Ante versus Ex Post Approaches to Financial Regualtion,15 Chap. L. Rev.257(2011-2012). {58}See Peter L. Kahn, Regulation and Simple Arithmetic; Shifting the Perspective on Tort Reform,72 N. C. L. Rev.1129,1138(1994). {59}See Douglas Lichtnan & Eric Posner, Holding Internet Service Provider Accountable,14 Sup. Ct. Econ. Rev.221,229(2006). {60}See Steven Shavell,Liability for Harm Versus Regulation of Safety,13 J. Legal Stud.357,359(1984). {61}See Ke Steven Wan, Gatekeeper Liability Versus Regulation of Wrongdoers,34 Ohio N. U. L. Rev.483,491(2008). {62}See Steven Shavell, Liability for Harm Versus Regulation of Safety,13 J. Legal Stud.357,360—61(1984). {63}See Ke Steven Wan, Gatekeeper Liability Versus Regulation of Wrongdoers,34 Ohio N. U. L. Rev.483,500(2008). {64}See Assaf Hamdani, Who's Liable for Cyberwrongs,87 Cornell L. Rev.901(2002). {65}See Larry E. Ribstein, Market vs. Regulatory Responses to Corporate Fraud: A Critique of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002,28 J. Corp. L.1,25(2002). {66}See Jay P. Kesan & Rajiv C. Shah, Setting Software Defaults: Perspectives from Law, Computer Science and Behavioral Economics,82 Notre Dame L. Rev.583,632-33(2006). {67}参见《北京市房屋建筑安全管理员管理办法(试行)》,京建法[2012]21号。 {68}See Peter H. Schuck, The Re-Evaluation of American Citizenship, 12 Geo. Immigr. L. J.1,6-7(1997). {69}See, e.g., 8 U. S. C.§1325(2000)(第一次违反移民规定,情节较轻,处以最高6个月的监禁或可以并处500美元的罚款);8 U.S. C.§1227(2000). {70}See U. S. Gov't Accountability Office, GAO -05-822T, Immigration Enforcement: Preliminary Observations on Employment Verification and Worksite Efforts 17-18(2005),available at http://www.judiciary.house.gov/media/pdfs/stana062105.pdf. {71}See Immigration Reform and Control Act, Pub. L. No.99-603,100 Stat.3359(1986)(amending the Immigration and Nationality Act,8 U. S. C.§§1101-1524(1952)); Illegal Immigrant Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996,Pub. L. No.104—208,§203(b)(4),110 Stat.3009(1996). See Kathleen M. Johnson, Coping With Illegal Immigrant Workers: Employer Sanctions,1984 U.111. L. Rev.959,961; but see R. Paul Faxon, Comment, Employer Sanctions for Hiring Undocumented Aliens: A Simplistic Solution to a Complex Problem,6 Nw. J. Int'l L.& Bus.203,204-07(1984). {72}See 8 U. S. C.§1324a(e)(4)(2000);8 C. F. R.§274(a)10(b)1(ii)(2000). {73}See Jeffrey L. Ehrenpreis, Controlling Our Borders Through Enhanced Employer Sanctions,79 S. Cal. L. Rev.1203,1217-18(2006). {74}“最佳威慑理论”(Optimal Deterrence Theory)是指设定法律规则可以最佳有效地制止社会损害行为。See Steven Shavell, ed.,Economic Analysis of Accident Law, Harv. Univ. Press,1987; Guido Calabresi, The Costs of Accidents: A Legal and Economic Analysis (1970); Gary S. Becker, Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach,76 J. Pol. Econ.169(1968). {75}See James Grimmelmann, Regulation by Software,114 Yale L. J.1719,1732(2005). {76}参见万柯:《网络等领域垄断看门人的替代责任》,载《环球法律评论》2011年第1期。 {77}See Michael C. Jensen & William H. Meckling, Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure,3 J. Fin. Econ,305(1976). {78}See Cecelia M. Espenoza, The Illusory Provisions of Sanctions: The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, 8 Geo. Immigr. L. J.343,347-48(1994); Maria Isabel Medina, The Criminalization of Immigration Law: Employer Sanctions and Marriage Fraud,5 Geo. Mason L. Rev.669,688-95(1997). {79}See Real I. D. Act of 2005, Pub. L. No.109-13,§§202-207,119 Stat.231(2005); H. R.4437,109th Cong.§§701,702(2005); S.2611,109th Cong.§§274A(d),274A(e)(2006). {80}See Cynthia Bansak & Stephen Raphael, Immigration Reform and the Earnings of Latino Workers: Do Employer Sanctions Cause Discrimination,54 Indus.& Lab. Rel. Rev.275,276-80(2001); U. S. Cen. 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Stephenson, Public Regulation of Private Enforcement: The Case for Expanding the Role of Administrative Agencies,91 Va. L. Rev.93,110-11(2005); Barton H. Thompson,Jr.,The Continuing Innovation of Citizen Enforcement,2000 U.111. L. Rev.185,191-92. {87}梁志文:《论第三方责任的合法性基础——以版权法之公共政策为视角的分析》,载《电子知识产权》2007年第4期。 {88}参见王天华:《行政委托与公权力行使——我国行政委托理论与实践的反思》,载《行政法学研究》2009年第4期。 {89}See Janet A. Gilboy,Compelled Third-Party Participation in the Regulatory Process: Legal Duties, Culture, and Noncompliance,20 Law & Pol'y 135,137(1998). {90}See Assaf Hamdani,Gatekeeper Liability,77 S. Cal. L. Rev.53,106-08(2003). {91}See Alfred C. Aman, Jr.,Globalization, Democracy, and the Need for A New Administrative Law, 49 UCLA L. Rev.1687(2001-2002). {92}See Cary Coglianese, et. al.,The Role of Government in Corporate Governance,1 N. Y. U. J. 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